the sea, the Southern rulers always proclaimed maritime dignities. Thus the Andhra kings assumed the title of Tri Samudradhipati, while even up to modem times the Zamorins of Calicut described themselves as the sovereigns of the mountains and the sea. From the ports of the East Coast a regular colonisation, as we know, was undertaken of the islands of Indonesia and cf the territories of South Asia. Periplus mentions three ports in the Tamil country of which Kaveripattanam was the centre, as the places from which great ships which he calls Colandia sailed to the islands of the Pacific. Ptolmey also notes the ports to the North of Chicacol as centres of navigation to Malaya and the Archipelago. We have also the authority of the Chinese pilgrim, Itsing, for the statement that there were direct sailings from Negapatam to Kedah in Malaya. While there is no doubt that other areas also shared in this work of colonisation, the very fact that Chola, Pandya, Pallava and Malayala are names for tribes inhabiting certain areas of Sumatra clearly establishes the direct relationship between the South Indian kingdoms and the colonists of Indonesia.

That the political history of the southern kingdoms in historical times has been connected more with Ceylon and Farther India than with any kingdoms North of the Vindhyas is also a well-established fact. In fact both the Pandya and Chola kings were engaged in intermittent warfare with the Sri Vijaya monarchs for over a cenr tury and a half. The Chola emperor Rajendra in A.D. 1007 led in person an expedition against Sri Vijaya, captured Kedah and established Chola power on the Malaya Peninsula. Over 120 years later the Sri Vijaya king, Chandra Bahu, in turn, attacked Ceylon in alliance with the Pandya ruler. These facts may indicate the extent to which the southern kingdoms were connected politically with the states across the seas.

IV. The Chieftaincies

Parts of the Tamil country were ruled by chieftains who were either independent or were bound by allegiance to one or other of the three kings. Several of these chieftains are mentioned in the early poetry, viz: Aay, Paari, Oori, Kaari, etc. Probably the three kingdoms evolved from early chieftaincies. K. N. SIVARAJA PILLAI emphasises the importance of the early chieftaincies in his book, The Chronology of the Early Tamils, University of Madras, 1932. The reading is from pages 192 to 194,